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eISBN: 978-3-8404-6923-7
Contents
Introduction
What are Emotions?
Case Examples using the EMRA™ Approach
Case History 1: Fear of strangers
Emotional Assessment
Mood State Assessment
Reinforcement Assessment
The Brain Reward System and the Concept of Therapy-induced Frustration
Case History 2: Over-excitement, nipping and clothes-tearing
Emotional Assessment
Mood State Assessment
Reinforcement Assessment
Case History 3: Soiling
Observations
Emotional Assessment
Mood State Assessment
Reinforcement Assessment
Previous Attempts at Treatment
Treatment
Improving the Hedonic Budget
Results
Case History 4: ‘Rage syndrome’
Meeting Bracken and his Owners
Emotional Assessment
Evolution and Brain Chemistry of Hunting Dogs
The History of So-called Rage Syndrome
No Pathology
Mood Assessment
Reinforcement Assessment
Outcome
Case History 5: Separation-related problem
Video Investigation
Observations during the Consultation
Possible Contributory Factors
Emotional Assessment
Mood State Assessment
Reinforcement Assessment
Hedonic Budget
Practical Interventions
Treatment Programme
Follow-up
Conclusion
Case History 6: Aggressive behaviour
Problem History
Observations and Practical Interventions
Emotional, Mood State and Reinforcement Assessment
Programme for Treatment
Treatment Outcome
The use of EMRA™ in Aggression Cases
Bonus Chapter: EMRA™ and Cats
Introduction
Observations
Owner Interaction
General Assessment
Emotional Assessment
Mood Assessment
Reinforcement Assessment
Treatment Plan
Outcome
Prognosis
Conclusion
The Authors
Further Reading
Introduction
Pseudo-diagnostic expressions such as ‘dominance aggression’ can easily lead to simplified and standardised treatment approaches that fail to consider the individual emotional state of the animal.
A fundamental, initially controversial, yet highly sensible change in the approach to the assessment and treatment of behaviour problems in companion animals has been established over the past few years at the Centre of Applied Pet Ethology (COAPE) in the UK. This has involved a major rethink of the global pseudo-diagnostic labelling techniques of old, such as ‘dominance aggression’ and ‘separation anxiety’. These descriptions have been widely adopted over the years, because they are often very simple to grasp; however, as anyone in the street could doubtless testify, behaviour, normal or abnormal, problematic or acceptable, is rarely a simple subject!
The old-fashioned labels given to behaviour problems, and the accompanying attempts to classify them on the basis of those labels, have inspired standardised treatment approaches in behaviour therapy, used by many behaviourists and veterinary practices alike, and the increasingly automatic prescription of medication for behaviour cases by veterinary surgeons who find themselves trying to address problems within the short time constraints of a routine practice consultation. The rigid and unthinking application of these approaches, which are largely based on the practice of collecting ‘sufficient and necessary’ signs to conclude a ‘diagnosis’ of a behaviour problem, have ensured that behaviour problems in dogs and cats have become increasingly seen as arising from some clinical abnormality, i.e. it is assumed that companion animals with behaviour problems are pathologically abnormal. Yet the vast majority of animals presenting with behaviour problems are clinically healthy. Behaviour problems are not diseases, even if they can mimic the signs and symptoms of some clinical conditions. These standardised approaches often lead to the assumption that treatment requires the lifelong prescription of drugs to restrain the animals emotionally, and to provide permanent behavioural management so that the owners can have a hope of living with their pets happily and safely.
The result of all of this has been that many experienced and inexperienced behaviourists have been striving to find clinical explanations for all behaviour problems, and have forgotten where the roots of companion animal behaviourism lie. It also seems to have been forgotten that dogs and cats are, for the most part, extraordinarily adaptable and well suited to life with people. In the search for some underlying disorder to explain, and in order to be able to categorise, behaviour problems, the fundamental nature of the vast majority of cases seems all too often to have been ignored. That vast majority of behaviour problems do not occur as a result of some clinically definable abnormality in the pet, but because these particular animals are experiencing difficulties in trying to cope with some aspect of their day-to-day lives, either with us or with conspecifics, and this deviates from the owners’ view of how they should behave. In the very small number of cases where pets with behaviour problems are not clinically normal, they will usually present with other physical or general neurological/behavioural signs rather than context-specific behaviour problems. This is why it has long been the bedrock of behaviourists that behaviour c ases are only treated on referral by veterinary surgeons who are qualified and legally entitled to make those genuine diagnoses and to judge an animal’s clinical state before referring it for behaviour therapy.
We tutors and practitioners at COAPE have long resisted the temptation to look first for conveniently packaged ‘diagnoses’ for behavioural problems in the animals that we treat. While we retain a need for solid knowledge of the very new understanding of how and why animals do what they do at the physiological and neurotransmitter level in the brain, and take account of the latest research publications on the genetic and experiential factors that influence behaviour, we remind ourselves constantly that the vast majority of companion animals with behaviour problems are clinically perfectly normal! The small number that are abnormal in no way justifies any need for behaviourists to become clinically expert at spotting them, because that is the job of the referring veterinary surgeon. Of course, with experience and help from veterinary surgeons well versed in genuine clinically abnormal cases, many behaviourists do become quite good at knowing what signs may contribute to a medically induced behavioural condition rather than a straightforward learned problem behaviour. These animals need patient and expert help so they can learn to behave differently, and usually in rather specific circumstances (e.g. Walker et al., 1997). They do not need a false, jargonised, quasi-scientific clinical diagnosis, an automated prescription of drugs, or standardised behaviour ‘therapy’ advice to help them get better at coping.
Dogs may howl or bark when they are left alone but this does not necessarily mean that they are suffering from ‘separation anxiety’.
So if, as COAPE believes, one should resist the overly simplistic behavioural approaches of old, and if one refuses to adopt the idea that companion animals with behaviour problems are clinically abnormal, what then should one believe in? It is actually very simple. At COAPE we have developed, applied, teach and now widely propose a more sensitive and individual approach to each problem behaviour case, based on EMRA™ – the three tenets of:
Food guarding may be a problem behaviour for the owner, but not for the dog!
At the core of this new approach lies an increased awareness of the individuality and emotionality of the animal, and the development of the practitioner’s ability to interpret how it feels. This is a dangerously controversial and anthropomorphic concept for some, in the absence of scientific techniques to quantify emotionality, but it is a logical development, given the essential highly emotional nature of all mammals. This, in fact, forms the ‘art’ of being a good empathetic behavioural practitioner, as opposed to one who lectures his or her clients about what their animals have ‘got’, uses complex terminology to describe simple things and offers standardised approaches to treatment.
This ‘art’ is now based on hard science. The physical and physiological relationships between the structures of the brain that govern moments of fear and anger, pleasure and ecstasy have for some years been a subject of great activity in neurobiological research in the field of human psychiatry. For example, ‘for many, emotional intelligence, ancient, impulsive and highly influential, determines our hopes for success as a species compared with our newer, more easily measured, cognitive intelligence, with its greater awareness and ability to ponder and reflect, and power to over-ride instinctive emotional responses’ (Goleman, 1996). Others suggest that the interplay between the two seats of intelligence is fundamental, and our ability to be sensitive to our emotions but to govern them with cognitive analysis holds the key. However, the structure of the human brain seems to allow emotionally driven instinctive responses to override cognitive processes and controlled responses very naturally at certain times. When decisions and action are required, ‘feeling counts every bit as much and, sometimes, more than thought. Intelligence can come to nothing when emotions hold sway’, as one highly respected neurobiologist wrote (Le Doux, 1998).
What are Emotions?
Licking produces pleasurable feelings for most dogs and some may lick themselves repeatedly, on the paws or forelegs for example, either to elevate their mood state or as the only available means of relieving stress.
Aggression can result from an escalation of frustration into anger or rage during social encounters, or from excitement that is misinterpreted by the other dog as threatening behaviour.
Emotions can be described as impulses to act, and as states of mind produced by reinforcing stimuli for very specific purposes. These include arousing the animal to take action to defend itself, seek food or other necessities, to form and maintain cooperative attachments with others in a group (for obligatory social animals such as dogs), to communicate emotional states one to another, to respond to novelty, and to memorise signals and happenings associated with social or environmental events and to learn to respond to those signals in the future, particularly in the case of stimuli associated with danger. Indeed, the different emotions may be classified according to whether the reinforcer is positive or negative. This gives rise to scales of reinforcement contingencies related to degrees of emotionality, e.g. pleasure increasing to elation and ecstasy, frustration increasing to anger and rage, apprehension increasing to fear and terror, etc. (see Figure 1, after Rolls, 1999).
Figure 1:
To be able to understand and change a dog’s behaviour it is essential to assess their emotional state. Being able to read the dog’s body language is a vital part of this assessment.
When working with the EMRA™ model, making an Emotional Assessment of a dog that is behaving aggressively towards another, or a dog that is destructive when left at home alone, is a vital first step. This is not a diagnosis, because only veterinary and medical practitioners are legally allowed to make diagnoses. This may be seen as commercial self-protection by some, and may fuel a need to classify all behaviour problems as if they are clinical diseases, or abnormalities lying solely within the animal. Rather than seeking to diagnose, it is essential to form an opinion of how the dog actually feels at the time of the problem: to assess whether it is fearful, frustrated, angry, sad, happy, etc. All of these emotions differ, and an accurate assessment points the way to treatment. The focus of treatment is first to decide how would we like the dog to feel as an alternative in such circumstances. We would obviously like to help a fearful dog to feel more confident or an angry dog to feel more content, and the job of the behaviourist is to help them learn to get there.
Making a Mood State Assessment of how the dog feels and behaves generally, at all other times when not showing the problem behavior, is our next step. Clearly a depressed dog is much harder to motivate in treatment than a more content one, but a maniacally happy dog that loves everyone and everything is in just as difficult a mood if, for example, we want them to focus and learn how to be calm with another dog instead of leaping all over them and frightening them. (Boxer owners will recognise this – their dogs get into trouble sometimes and then become aggressive because they are just too exuberant for other dogs!) It is the dog’s basal mood state that first needs attention, not their emotional response at the time that they get into conflict with other dogs. That comes after we have stabilised mood at a more relaxed and communicable level.
A dog’s mood state needs to be relaxed and positive before any changes to their emotional state and resulting behaviour in the problem situation can be addressed.
The third part of the EMRA™ approach is Reinforcement Assessment, which involves assessing what the benefit is to the dog in actually performing the problem behaviour. If there were no emotional benefit to the dog, the behaviour would never have been established or repeated, or withstood any efforts to remove it. This is crucial, as the question of reinforcement must also be considered at the neurochemical level, and any treatment must first uncouple the feelings of success or relief that have become established when carrying out the behaviour. Only then can one develop opportunities in treatment for the dog to carry out alternative, but equally successful or relief-bringing, behaviours which themselves become reinforced and established in those circumstances.
there is no learning without emotional change.