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Contents

Foreword

Introduction

Rolling the Stone

The Everyday Appreciation of the Myth

“What Enters Your Head When You Hear the Name Sisyphus?”

Associations

Reflections on the Mythical Image

First Example: The Examination

Second Example: The Picture

Hope and Hopelessness or Expectation and Disappointment

Recurrent Disappointments and Renewed Hope

An Example: Senseless Expectation

The Stone as a Symbol

The Precondition for the Punishment

The First Part of the Myth of Sisyphus

Sisyphus, the Trickster

The Master Thief

The Bartered Spring

Death is Outwitted

Death is Outwitted Once Again

Return to the Stone

An Example: The Refusal to Consent to a Loss

Another Example of the Same Theme

An Example: Letting Go Creates Freedom

Holding On and Letting Go

An Example: The Constantly Recurring Problem That Changes After All

Repetition as an Aspect of Creative Activity

Once Again: Letting Go

An Example: Relief from Duty

The Myth in Midlife

Traditional Interpretations of the Sisyphus Myth

Rolling the Stone: The Work of Ocean Waves

Sisyphus as Bearer of the Sun

The Search for Understanding

The Myth as an Expression of the Character of Coastal Peoples

The Myth of Sisyphus in a Dream

Dream of a Thirty-Eight-Year-Old Woman Nothing Can Be Torn Away From Death

The Dreamer’s Explanations

Attempt at an Interpretation

Translator’s Note

Bibliography

Foreword

From Existentialism to Jungian Psychology

by Norman M. Brown

The image of Sisyphus pushing his boulder up the hill is familiar to us all. If we reached adulthood by the mid-sixties, we remember Sisyphus as the absurd hero of Albert Camus, the French Algerian novelist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1957. But the chances are we never actually read Camus’ book called The Myth of Sisyphus.

Camus’ novels The Stranger and The Plague were penetrating, readable accounts of men in extreme situations. But The Myth of Sisyphus had only four pages about the mythical hero at the end of a difficult philosophical reflection on suicide versus engagement with a hopelessly frustrating world.

In fact, Camus’ Myth of Sisyphus (Paris, 1942) was not translated until the two novels had made a reputation for him. And even when the translation finally came out in 1955 it was poorly received by American reviewers.1If Camus’ poetic philosophy around the myth was easily misunderstood and soon passed by, the mythical symbol of the indefatigable hero quickly etched itself into the cultural scene. Thanks to the power of symbols, the mythical image reached much further than any of Camus’ philosophical ideas, further even than any of his novels. The heroism of Sisyphus was identified with the skeptical humanist Camus himself, who for a few years in the late fifties was “guide to a generation” of youths on both sides of the Atlantic.2

Sisyphus was embraced by Americans as the embodiment of fruitless but courageous striving. But the French Existentialism from which the hero emerged didn’t fare so well. Camus’ tough-minded defiance was formed by the Nazi occupation of Europe, but America had never suffered such indignities on its own soil.

To be sure, the beatnik poets and a few playwrights like Edward Albee shocked the public with their scorn and despair. And Existentialist postulates about reality came alive in the American universities to help students cope with the crises generated when their home town religious faiths were laid low by the sciences, psychology and history.

But for the most part, Existentialism could only find a home in the mainstream of American culture by shedding most of its “gloom” and becoming more optimistic. Perhaps we did live in a meaningless world that was indifferent to our suffering. But if we could just get up the courage to choose a meaning or belief system for ourselves, we would get along all right.

There were those who lightened up Existentialism’s gloom for American consumption. Theologian Paul Tillich thanked the Existentialists for rediscovering “the basic questions, to which Christian symbols are the answers.”3 Psychologist Erich Fromm answered the same basic questions with the all-American solution of romantic love.4 And Viktor Frankl5 found a will to meaning which could be satisfied by work. These were valuable intellectual responses to the challenge of Existentialism. But on the popular level, Existentialism was tamed by the brawny, anti-intellectual optimism of the American Dream.

As children, many of us were taught to “hitch our wagons to a star.” In school we learned to believe in constant progress. This optimistic myth is often translated into a personal plan to climb the ladder of success and wealth for one’s entire life. Pop psychology even abolishes society and the world as limitations to our dreaming by asserting that “we create our own reality” and teaching us daily affirmations to manufacture just what we need.

But the titanic urge of the American Dream is an immoderate ambition that sets us up for the frustrations of Sisyphus. By denying the existential limitations set by physical, historical, social and psychological realities, the popular mind-set both covers up and creates an awesome abyss. When the limitations caused by aging and the choices we have made in life come home to roost in midlife, that abyss opens up beneath us. We discover then that we can no longer walk on air as we could in our dreams.

In the midlife crisis we discover that we do need to reckon with our limitations after all. For pursuing our dreams has led us to live the life of Sisyphus. This is where Verena Kast’s book can come to our aid.

Dr. Kast’s work is not a reinterpretation of Camus’ myth of Sisyphus, because Camus never offered a full-fledged interpretation in the first place. Camus only interpreted Sisyphus’ punishment, without even mentioning what the hero did to deserve it. Dr. Kast explains and interprets all of Sisyphus’ deeds, so we get a much more complete basis for understanding the myth.

If midlife is the time for a reckoning between our dreams and reality, then the Existentialism represented by Sisyphus has valuable insights to offer. Dr. Kast presents here a critical reappraisal of Camus’ hero. As a European accustomed to limitations of territory, she lacks the luxurious American fantasy of unlimited growth and possibilities. Therefore she takes the Sisyphean challenge to mean the discrimination between the limits of growth and the possibilities of change, and between hope and hopelessness. But as the soul of Europe emerges from the shadows of recurrent world wars, she presents us with a more purposeful philosophy than Existentialism. Dr. Kast relates the trials of Sisyphus to a coherent conception of the human life cycle in a meaningful cosmos.

The psychology of Carl Gustav Jung grew up at the same time as the Existentialism of Heidegger and Sartre, but it differs in some fundamental assumptions. Existentialism takes its name from a central tenet that existence precedes essence. That means that there is no inherent essence of human nature, so we are free to define ourselves through our choices in life. Yet this awesome responsibility for our actions cannot keep us from being thrown about or crushed by physical, social, historical and psychological forces beyond our control. In contrast, Jung found an essential human nature that precedes the choices we make in life. Human nature is not infinitely variable, so we are not able to create whatever “reality” or self we want. But neither are we completely at the mercy of external forces. Jung saw an inherent pattern unfolding in the course of each person’s life that is actually the manifestation of inborn structures in the mind.

Existentialism declared we are responsible for the consequences of our choices, including their effects on others. Jung added that we were also responsible for the effects of our choices and attitudes on ourselves: We may bring on psychological suffering if we violate the hidden pattern of our own natures. On the other hand, Jung said our most basic psychological problems also derive from our intrinsic natures. Therefore our problems cannot be eliminated, only coped with, like the stone of Sisyphus.6

Jung agreed with the Existentialists and modern science that there is no way to verify the presence of a god in the external world. But from the universality of religions Jung concluded that the psychic structures for imaging a god are present in everyone. Thus if Sisyphus was challenging the gods in ancient Greece, he was violating the divine patterning in human nature. Sisyphus’ crime and punishment can then provide clues to the secrets of human nature and development which can address issues for us all.

We should not expect a single unified interpretation of the Sisyphus myth from Dr. Kast. For Jungian analysis of myths is not a historical, anthropological or literary science with strict criteria of validity. The author uses these other disciplines as tools in a Jungian amplification of the events arranged in the myth. She interprets European folk tales, everyday incidents, attitudes and issues encountered in psychotherapy in light of the Sisyphus themes. As a result, the myth of Sisyphus becomes a kaleidoscope through which we can look deeply into our own lives and gain a little wisdom from each facet.

This book does more than just explain the value for our lives of the Greek wisdom embodied in the myth. As a Jungian analyst, Dr. Kast has mined her own experiences and those of contemporaries and patients to show ways in which we can see ourselves reflected in the myth.

Few of us will be entirely comfortable identifying with Sisyphus’ fate. But when our individual or collective American Dreams crash before our eyes, we can learn to face the disappointment and the void without collapsing, escaping into intoxicants or complaining like the cynic. We can cease our Sisyphean labors or choose to take up our stone again, realizing this time that the path we follow is the goal.

Norman M. Brown

1 “It is all very high powered and confusing…” The New Yorker, April 14, 1956, 174. “Camus has an ‘interesting’ mind, one that momentarily attracts because of its penchant for expressing epigrammatically lucid reasons for holding improbable beliefs.” Yale Review, Spring 1956, 46. The most popular magazine was the most snide, concluding: “Most will agree with Camus that the disappearance of God from the calculations of the modern intellectual has put a rope of despair around his neck. And they may respect Camus’ astonishingly simple faith that things will be more comfortable if it is agreed to call despair ‘lack of hope,’ and the rope a cravat.” Time, Oct. 3, 1955, 100. Even William Barrett, whose book Irrational Man collected and introduced basic Existentialist writings for Americans, was unenthusiastic about the philosophy of Sisyphus: “It is a difficult ideal of life, and maybe too narrow and thwarting a one; but it is also one that one cannot help but admire.”Saturday Review, Oct. 8, 1955, 14.

2 Thomas Molnar, then a professor at Brooklyn College, opens his article, “A. Camus: Guide of a Generation,” this way: “Nine students out of ten, if asked to name a contemporary author with the greatest impact on youth, will mention Albert Camus in the first place.” Catholic World, Jan. 1958, 186:272.

3 Tillich, Paul, first published in Christianity and the Existentialists, ed. Carl Michalson, reviewed and quoted in Time, July 16, 1956, 87.

4 “Love,” says Dr. Fromm, “is the only satisfactory answer to the problem of human existence.” Quoted on the frontispiece of the Bantam paperback edition of Fromm, Erich, The Art of Loving, first published New York, Harper & Row, 1956.

5 Frankl, Viktor, Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy. Boston, Beacon Press, 1959.

6 American psychotherapy seems to be invested in denying and disproving the limitations to its efficacy which both Freudians and Jungians have accepted as a fact. From hypnosis to drugs and cognitive behaviorism to body work, numerous American therapies have soared and fallen from favor on the presumption that complete and lasting cures are possible. On the popular front, Rolfing, Rebirthing and Scientology have also made the same immoderate claims of cures. But Alcoholics Anonymous is more modest, like Jung, from whom its founder, Bill W., received encouragement and support.